This invention relates generally to the field of anlaysing samples and has particular, but not exclusive, application in the field of affinity sensing for example that known generally as DNA, protein, peptide and antibody chip technology. One aspect of the invention is concerned with a sensor platform which can be used to analyse samples. Another aspect of the invention is concerned with an apparatus which makes use of the sensor platform. A further aspect of the invention is concerned with the process for analysing samples which makes use of the platform.
Techniques for anlaysing two-dimensional arrays of samples are known. One such technique is known as an ELISA assay and is based upon the intense biochemical reaction between antibodies and antigens. Special mono or polyclonal antibodies are immobilised on substrates and react with complimentary species. Fluorophore labelled markers are added, activated via enzyme-linked antibodies, and the samples are irradiated with light in order to induce fluorescence. The fluorescence is deleted and the intensity of the fluorescence is indicative of the affinity reaction.
Another known technique is that described in WO98/27430. In this a large number of different species are immobilised in an array on a substrate. The species are immobilised on the substrate by photolithographical means. Fluorophore labelled markers are added to the species. A sample is prepared and reacted with the immobilised species and the whole chip is scanned with a focused laser beam. Alternatively a sample is prepared and modified with fluorophore labelled markers and reacted with the immobilised species and the whole chip is scanned with a focused laser beam. The fluorescent signals are detected by photodetectors and a 2D pattern is produced. Changes in this pattern between individual samples provide an indication of differences in gene expression and therefore provides information about pharmacology and toxicology.
Another known technique is that based on evanescent wave sensors. These make use of coherent laser light which is trapped in a very thin layer and creates so-called evanescent electromagnetic fields which extends for a small distance outside the actual physical sensor. This field can interact with molecules attached to the surface of the sensor. This evanescent excitation or interaction is limited to a region very close to the vicinity of the waveguide, typically 0.5 microns for visible light from the surface. The evanescent fields remain localised spatially and do not transfer their stored energy to other regions. The interaction of the laser light with the molecules can be used in a number of different ways. These include:
1 Detection of luminescence induced by the evanescent field.
2 Detection of changes in refractive index which occur when molecules of a sample bind to capture molecules.
3 Detection of surface plasmon resonance.
One particular sensor which uses an evanescent field is known as a planar waveguide sensor. The planar waveguide sensor comprises a planar substrate having formed thereon a thin wave guiding layer. Part of the wave guiding layer incorporates a grating onto which laser light is incident and from which the laser light is launched so that it propagates through the waveguide layer to a sensing region remote from the grating. The waveguide sensor can be either used in a mass sensitive mode (cf. 2, 3 above), or with superior sensitivity in combination with luminescence excitation and detection (cf. 1 above). Capture molecules are immobilised on the sensing area and the analyte (sample) is then brought into contact with the sensing area/capture molecules in the presence of added labelled molecules with similar affinity (competition). Alternatively, analyte molecules may bind to immobilised capture molecules and fluorescence labels are introduced by reaction of a further labelled species with the captured analyte molecules. Laser light launched into the waveguiding layer leads to evanescent excitation of the fluorophores which then allows the quantification of the analyte. The emitted fluorescence is detected and the intensity of the fluorescence provides an indication of the interaction that has occurred between affinity partners present in the analyte and the immobilised capture molecules. It should be noted that in this type of arrangement the laser radiation propagates inside the waveguide over relatively long distances and the coupling grating and the sensing areas are geometrically separated. (See WO 95/33197 and WO 95/33198).
EP-0 455 067 A2 describes a planar waveguide sensor exploiting the detecting principle of refractive index changes. The platform shallow grooves formed over the entire platform couple polarised, coherent light into the transparent waveguiding layer where it is coupled out after some distance. The angle of the outcoupled beam changes when analyte molecules bind to capture molecules.
Another example of the refractive index type is given in U.S. Pat. No. 5,738,825. The platform contains individual gratings being in contact with the wells of a microtiter plate.
EP 178 083 discloses Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) in which the energy of incoming photons is converted to electrical energy as a surface plasmon wave. The sensor architecture requires a metal layer in contrast to the platform of the present invention, and the amount of reflected light at the critical angle is, or approximate to, zero in contrast with the present invention in which the reflected intensity reaches almost 100%.
All the above techniques suffer from various disadvantages. Some are very slow because each sample has to be excited individually. Others such as the planar waveguide allow excitation of more than one sample at a time, but do not provide entirely reliable results because of fluorescence crosstalk between different capture elements and locally varying excitation light intensities due to losses of the waveguides and local variations of coupled power due to variations of grating coupling efficiencies.
The present invention is concerned with a technique which allows multiple samples to be analysed simultaneously in an extremely sensitive, reliable, and quantitative manner.
In contrast to planar waveguide sensors, the present invention shows no luminescence crosstalk and local light intensities are well defined. The present invention allows true multiplexing, i.e. the transducer requires no stacked substructure (as is the case for planar waveguides) and can be seen as a universal platform, where, depending on the requirements, size and number of recognition elements can be varied within the technical feasible limitations, without requiring changes in the chip structure (corrugated areas and sensing areas are not separated as is the case for planar waveguides). In addition, the invention delivers about 100 fold stronger luminescence intensities compared to prior epifluorescence techniques. The experimental set-up is very simple and requires solely a simple adjustment of the angle of the incident light beam. The transducers described in the present invention, can be easily adapted to conventional fluorescence microscopes, confocal microscopes, and laser scanners. Furthermore, for transducers with a broad resonance width (defined as Full Width at Half Maximum, FWHM) and a resonance position at or close to normal incidence, angle adjustments are obsolete.
The production process of the platform is relatively simple (cheap) and the performance of existing systems (i.e. fluorescence scanners, microscopes, fluorescence microtiter plate readers, . . . ) can be easily increased by modest modifications of the respective set-ups.
According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a platform for use in sample analysis comprising an optically transparent substrate having a refractive index (n1), a thin, optically transparent layer, formed on one surface of the substrate, said layer having a refractive index (n2) which is greater than (n1), said platform incorporating therein one or multiple corrugated structures comprising periodic grooves which define one or multiple sensing areas or regions, each for one or multiple capture elements, said grooves being so profiled, dimensioned and oriented that either
a) coherent light incident on said platform is diffracted into individual beams or diffraction orders which interfere resulting in reduction of the transmitted beam and an anormal high reflection of the incident light thereby generating an enhanced evanescent field at the surface of the one or multiple sensing areas; or
b) coherent and linearly polarised light incident on said platform is diffracted into individual beams or diffraction orders which interfere resulting in almost total excitation of the transmitted beam and an anormal high reflection of the incident light thereby generating an enhanced evanescent field at the surface of the one or multiple sensing areas.
According to a second aspect of the present invention there is provided a platform comprising an optically transparent substrate having a refractive index (n1), a thin, optically transparent layer, formed on one surface of the substrate, said layer having a refractive index (n2) which is greater than (n1), said platform incorporating in the transparent layer a corrugated structure substantially over the entire platform, or multiple separate corrugated structures arranged on the platform, said structures comprising substantially parallel periodic grooves which are mono- or multi-diffractional which grooves represent one or multiple sensing areas or regions, wherein
(a) the depth of the grooves in the range of 3 nm to the thickness of the optically transparent layer,
(b) the thickness of the optically transparent layer is in the range of 30 to 1000 nm,
(c) the period of the corrugated structure is in the range of 200 to 1000 nm,
(d) the ratio of groove depth to the thickness of the optically transparent layer is in the range of 0.02 to 1, and
(e) the ratio of groove width to the period of the grooves is in the range of 0.2 to 0.8. The arrangement may be such that, in use, the grooves are so profiled, dimensioned and oriented that either
a) coherent light incident on the platform is diffracted into individual beams or diffraction orders which interfere resulting in reduction of the transmitted beam and an anormal high reflection of the incident light thereby generating an enhanced evanescent field at the surface of the one or multiple sensing areas; or
b) coherent and linearly polarised light incident on said platform is diffracted into individual beams or diffraction orders which interfere resulting in almost total extinction of the transmitted beam and an anormal high reflection of the incident light thereby generating an enhanced evanescent field at the surface of the one or multiple sensing areas.
As used herein, orientation is understood to mean that the electric field vector of the linearly polarised light is parallel or perpendicular to the grooves. As used herein, coherent light is understood to mean that the coherence length of the radiation, i.e. the spatial extent to which the incident beam has a defined phase relation, is large compared to the thickness of the platform.
The evanescent field decays exponentially within wavelength dimensions of the incident beam (less than 1 xcexcm).
An important aspect of the present invention is the use of a platform in which so-called evanescent resonance can be created. Anormal reflection is a phenomenon which has been described theoretically in the prior art for example in a paper entitled xe2x80x9cTheory and applications of guided mode resonance filtersxe2x80x9d by S S Wang and R Magnusson in Applied Optics, Vol. 32, No 14, May 10, 1993, pages 2606 to 2613 and in a paper entitled xe2x80x9cCoupling gratings as waveguide functional elementsxe2x80x9d by O. Parriaux et al, Pure and Applied Optics 5, (1996) pages 453-469. As explained in these papers resonance phenomena can occur in planar dielectric layer diffraction gratings where almost 100% switching of optical energy between reflected and transmitted waves occurs when the grooves of the diffraction grating have sufficient depth and the radiation incident on the corrugated structure is at a particular angle. In the present invention this phenomenon is exploited in the sensing area of the platform where that sensing area includes diffraction grooves of sufficient depth and light is caused to be incident on the sensing area of the platform at an angle such that evanescent resonance occurs in that sensing region. This creates in the sensing region an enhanced evanescent field which is used to excite samples under investigation. It should be noted that the 100% switching referred to above occurs with parallel beam and linearly polarised coherent light and the effect of an enhanced evanescent field can also be achieved with non-polarised light of a non-parallel focused laser beam.
At resonance conditions the individual beams interfere in such a way that the transmitted beam is cancelled out (destructive interference) and the reflected beam interferes constructively giving rise to anormal high reflection.
By choosing appropriate parameters for the above mentioned corrugated layer structure the excitation energy remains highly localized. Such structures are described in the literature as photonic band gap structures, materials with periodic spatial variations of their refractive index such that electromagnetic radiation cannot propagate in any direction. Photonic bandgap structures allow highly localized modes to appear, see e.g. the paper entitled xe2x80x9cLocalisation of One Photon Statesxe2x80x9d by C. Adlard, E. R. Pike and S. Sarkar in Physical Review Letters, Vol. 79, No. 9, pages 1585-87 (1997). Such structures exhibit extremely large propagation losses corresponding to a mode localisation in the xcexcm regime.
The platform of the present invention can be considered as optically active in contrast to optically passive platforms constructed from e.g. a glass or polymer. Here, optically active means increasing the electromagnetic field of the excitation beam by energy confinement.
The substrate of the platform may be formed from inorganic material such as glass, SiO2, quartz, Si. Alternatively the substrate can be formed from organic materials such as polymers preferably polycarbonate (PC), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polyimide (PI), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or polyurethane (PU). These organic materials are especially preferred for point-of-care (POC) and personalized medical applications since glass is not accepted in such as environment. Plastics substrates can be structured (embossed) much more easily than glass. In one example the substrate is formed from glass.
The optically transparent layer may be formed from inorganic material. Alternatively it can be formed form organic material. In one example the optically transparent layer is a metal oxide such as Ta2O5, TiO2, Nb2O5, ZrO2, ZnO or HfO2. The optically transparent layer is non-metallic.
Alternatively the optically transparent layer can be made of organic material such as polyamide, polyimide, polypropylene (PP), PS, PMMA, polyacryl acids, polyacryl ethers, polythioether, poly(phenylenesulfide), and derivatives thereof (see for example S S. Hardecker et al., J. of Polymer Science B: Polymer Physics, Vol. 31, 1951-63, 1993).
The depth of the diffraction grooves may be in the range 3 nm to the thickness of the optically transparent layer and preferably 10 nm to the thickness of the optically transparent layer e.g. 30 nm to the thickness of the optically transparent layer. The thickness of the optically transparent layer be in the range of 30 to 1000 nm, e.g. 50 to 300 nm, preferably 50-200 nm, the period of the corrugated structure may be in the range 200 to 1000 nm, e.g. 200 to 500 nm, preferably 250-500 nm, the ratio of the groove depth to the thickness of the optically transparent layer may lie in the range 0.02 to 1 e.g. 0.25 to 1, preferably 0.3 to 0.7, and the ratio of the grooves width to the period of the grooves (xe2x80x9cduty-cyclexe2x80x9d) may lie in the range 0.2 to 0.8, e.g. 0.4 to 0.6.
The grooves may be generally rectangular in cross-section. Alternatively, the grooves may be sinusoidal or of saw tooth cross-section. The surface structure may be generally symmetrical. Preferred geometries include rectangular, sinusoidal, and trapezoidal cross-sections. Alternatively, the grooves may be of saw tooth cross-section (blazed grating) or of other asymmetrical geometry. In another aspect the groove depth may vary, e.g. in periodic modulations.
The platform may be square or rectangular and the grooves may extend linearly along the platform so as to cover the surface. Alternatively the platform may be disc shaped and the grooves may be circular or linear.
The grooves may be formed on a surface of the substrate. Alternatively the grooves may be formed on a surface of the optically transparent layer. As a further alternative, grooves may be formed both on the surface of the substrate which is the interface and on the surface of the optically transparent layer.
The corrugated surface of a single sensing area may be optimized for one particular excitation wavelength and for one particular type of polarisation. By appropriate means, e.g. superposition of several periodic structures which are parallel or perpendicular one with another, periodic surface reliefs can be obtained that are suitable for multiple wavelength use of the platform (xe2x80x9cmulticolourxe2x80x9d applications). Alternatively, individual sensing areas on one platform may be optimized for different wavelengths and/or polarization orientations.
The surface of the optically transparent layer may include one or a plurality of corrugated sensing areas which each may carry one or a plurality of capture elements.
Each capture element may contain individual and/or mixtures of capture molecules which are capable of affinity reactions. The shape of an individual capture element may be rectangular, circular, ellipsoidal, or any other shape. The area of an individual capture element is between 1 xcexcm2 and 10 mm2, e.g. between 20 xcexcm2 and 1 mm2 and preferably between 100 xcexcm2 and 1 mm2. The capture elements may be arranged in a regular two dimensional array. The center-to-center (ctc) distance of the capture elements may be between 1 xcexcm and 1 mm, e.g. 5 xcexcm to 1 mm, preferably 10 xcexcm to 1 mm.
The number of capture elements per sensing area is between 1 and 1,000,000, preferably 1 and 100,000. In another aspect, the number of capture elements to be immobilized on the platform may not be limited and may correspond to e.g. the number of genes, DNA sequences, DNA motifs, DNA micro satellites, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), proteins or cell fragments constituting a genome of a species or organism of interest, or a selection or combination thereof. In a further aspect, the platform of this invention may contain the genomes of two or more species, e.g. mouse and rat.
The platform may include an adhesion promoting layer disposed at the surface of the optically transparent layer in order to enable immobilisation of capture molecules. The adhesion promoting layer may also comprise a microporous layer (ceramics, glass, Si) for further increasing assay and detection efficacy or of gel layers which either can be used as medium for carrying out the capture element immobilisation and sample analysis, thereby further increasing the assay and detection efficacy, or which allow separation of analyte mixtures in the sense of gel electrophoresis. The platform may be formed with a plurality of sensing areas or regions, each having its own diffractive grooves.
A feature of the platform of this invention is that light energy entering the optically transparent layer is diffracted out of the layer immediately due to the nature of the corrugated platform. Therefore no or negligible waveguiding occurs. Typically the propagation distance is 100 xcexcm or less, preferably 10 xcexcm or less. This is a very surprisingly short distance. The propagation distance is the distance over which the energy of the radiation is reduced to 1/e.
A third aspect of the invention provides apparatus for analysing samples comprising a platform according to said first or second aspect, means for generating a light beam and for directing the beam so that it is incident upon the platform at an angle which causes evanescent resonance to occur in the platform to thereby create an enhanced evanescent field in the sensing area of the platform, and means for detecting a characteristic of a material disposed on the sensing area of the platform. The range of angles suitable for creating a resonance condition is limited by the angle of total reflection for incident light on the platform. Preferred angles are less than 45xc2x0, e.g. 30xc2x0 or less, e.g. 20xc2x0 to 10xc2x0 or below, e.g. 0.1xc2x0 to 9.9xc2x0. The angle may equal or approximate normal incidence. The light generating means may comprise a laser for emitting a coherent laser beam. Other suitable light sources include discharge lamps or low pressure lamps, e.g. Hg or Xe, where the emitted spectral lines have sufficient coherence length, and light-emitting diode (LED). The apparatus may also include optical elements for directing the laser beam so that it is incident on the platform at an angle xcex8, and elements for shaping the plane of polarisation of the coherent beam, e.g. adapted to transmit linearly-polarised light. The angle xcex8 may be defined by the expression sin xcex8=nxe2x88x92xcex/xcex9 where xcex9 is a period of the diffractive grooves, xcex is the wavelength of the incident light and n is the effective refractive index of the optically transparent layer.
Examples of lasers that may be used are gas lasers, solid state lasers, dye lasers, semiconductor lasers. If necessary, the emission wavelength can be doubled by means of non-linear optical elements. Especially suitable lasers are argon ion lasers, krypton ion lasers, argon/krypton ion lasers, and helium/neon lasers which emit at wavelengths between 275 and 753 nm. Very suitable are diode lasers or frequency doubled diode lasers of semiconductor material which have small dimensions and low power consumption.
Another appropriate type of excitation makes use of VCSEL""s (vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers) which may individually excite the recognition elements on the platform.
The detecting means may be arranged to detect luminescence such as fluorescence. Affinity partners can be labelled in such a way that Forster fluorescence energy transfer (FRET) can occur upon binding of analyte molecules to capture molecules. The maximum of the luminescence intensity might be slightly shifted relative to the position of highest abnormal reflection depending on the refractive index values of the layer system and the corresponding Fresnel Coefficients.
The samples may be used either undiluted or with added solvents. Suitable solvents include water, aqueous buffer solutions, protein solutions, natural or artificial oligomer or polymer solutions, and organic solvents. Suitable organic solvents include alcohols, ketones, esters, aliphatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes, acetronitrile or nitriles.
Solubilisers or additives may be included, and may be organic or inorganic compounds or biochemical reagents such as diethylpyrocarbonate, phenol, formamide, SSC (sodium citrate/sodium chloride), SDS (Sodiumdodecylsulfate), buffer reagents, enzymes, reverse transcriptase, RNAase, organic or inorganic polymers.
The sample may also comprise constituents that are not soluble in the solvents used, such as pigment particles, dispersants and natural and synthetic oligomers or polymers.
The luminescence dyes used as markers may be chemically or physically, for instance electrostatically, bonded to one or multiple affinity binding partners (or derivatives thereof) present in the analyte solution and/or attached to the platform. In case of naturally-occurring oligomers or polymers such as DNA, RNA, saccharides, proteins, or peptides, as well as synthetic oligomers or polymers, involved in the affinity reaction, intercalating dyes are also suitable. Luminophores may be attached to affinity partners present in the analyte solution via biological interaction such as biotin/avidin binding or metal complex formation such as HIS-tag coupling.
One or multiple luminescence markers may be attached to affinity partners present in the analyte solution, to capture elements immobilized on the platform, or both to affinity partners present in analyte solution and capture elements immobilized at the platform, in order to quantitatively determine the presence of one or multiple affinity binding partners. The spectroscopic properties of the luminescence markers may be chosen to match the conditions for Fxc3x6rster Energy Transfer or Photoinduced Electron Transfer. Distance and concentration dependent luminescence of acceptors and donors may then be used for the quantification of analyte molecules.
Quantification of affinity binding partners may be based on intermolecular and/or intramolecular interaction between such donors and acceptors bound to molecules involved in affinity reactions. Intramolecular assemblies of luminescence donors and acceptors covalently linked to affinity binding partners, Molecular Beacons (S. Tyagi et al., Nature Biotechnology 1996, 14, 303-308) which change the distance between donor and acceptor upon affinity reaction, may also be used as capture molecules or additives for the analyte solution. In addition, pH and potentially sensitive luminophores or luminophores sensitive to enzyme activity may be used, such as enzyme mediated formation of fluorescing derivatives.
Transfluorospheres or derivatives thereof may be used for fluorescence labelling, and chemi-luminescent or electro-luminescent molecules may be used as markers.
Luminescent compounds having luminescence in the range of from 400 nm to 1200 nm which are functionalised or modified in order to be attached to one or more of the affinity partners, such as derivatives of
polyphenyl and heteroaromatic compounds
stilbenes,
coumarines,
xanthene dyes,
methine dyes,
oxazine dyes,
rhodamines,
fluoresceines,
coumarines, stilbenes,
pyrenes, perylenes,
cyanines, oxacyanines, phthalocyanines, porphyrines, naphthalopcyanines, azobenzene derivatives, distyryl biphenyls,
transition metal complexes e.g. polypyridyl/ruthenium complexes, tris(2,2xe2x80x2-bipyridyl)ruthenium chloride, tris(1,10-phenanthroline)ruthenium chloride, tris(4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline) ruthenium chloride and polypyridyl/phenazine/ruthenium complexes, such as octaethyl-platinum-porphyrin, Europium and Terbium complexes may be used as luminescence makers.
Suitable for analysis of blood or serum are dyes having absorption and emission wavelength in the range from 400 nm to 1000 nm. Furthermore luminophores suitable for two and three photon excitation can be used.
Dyes which are suitable in this invention may contain functional groups for covalent bonding, e.g. fluorescein derivatives such as fluorescein isothiocyanate. Also suitable are the functional fluorescent dyes commercially available from Amersham Life Science, Inc. Texas, and Molecular Probes Inc.
Other suitable dyes include dyes modified with deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) which can be enzymatically incorporated into RNA or DNA strands. Further suitable dyes include Quantum Dot Particles or Beads (Quantum Dot Cooperation, Palo Alto, Calif.) or derivatives thereof or derivatives of transition metal complexes which may be excited at one and the same defined wavelength, and derivatives show luminescence emission at distinguishable wavelengths.
Analytes may be detected either via directly bonded luminescence markers, or indirectly by competition with added luminescence marked species, or by concentration-, distance-, pH-, potential- or redox potential-dependent interaction of luminescence donors and lumienscence/electron acceptors used as markers bonded to one and/or multiple analyte species and/or capture elements. The luminescence of the donor and/or the luminescence of the quencher can be measured for the quantification of the analytes.
In the same manner affinity partners can be labelled in such a way that electron transfer or photoinduced electron transfer leads to quenching of fluroescence upon binding of analyte molecules to capture molecules.
Appropriate detectors for luminescence include CCD-cameras, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, photodiodes, hybrid photomultiplier tubes.
The detection means can be arranged to detect in addition changes in refractive index.
The incident beam may be arranged to illuminate the sensing area or all sensing areas on one common platform. Alternatively the beam can be arranged to illuminate only a small sub-area of the sensing area to be analysed and the beam and/or the platform may be arranged so that they can undergo relative movement in order to scan the sensing area of the platform.
Accordingly the detecting means may be arranged in an appropriate way to acquire the luminescence signal intensities of the entire sensing area in a single exposure step. Alternatively the detection and/or excitation means may be arranged in order to scan the sensing areas stepwise.
The apparatus may include a cartridge for location against the sensing area of the platform to bring a sample into contact with the sensing area. The cartridge may contain further means in order to carry out sample preparation, diluting, concentrating, mixing, bio/chemical reactions, separations, in a miniaturised format (see WO 97/02357). The apparatus may include a microtiter type device for containing a plurality of samples to be investigated.
A fourth aspect of the present invention provides a process for anlaysing a sample or samples which comprises bringing the sample into contact with the sensing area of a platform according to said first or second aspect, irradiating the platform with a light beam such that evanescent resonance is caused to occur within the sensing area of the platform and detecting radiation emanating from the sensing area. The method may comprise adding fluorescent inducing material to the samples under investigation and sensing fluorescence induced in said samples by excitation of the samples by the enhanced evanescent field. Alternatively the method may comprise adding fluorescence inducing or quenching material to the samples under investigation and/or transfer of the samples under investigation into fluorescing or quenching derivatives and sensing fluorescence induced by said samples bound at the sensing platform by excitation with the enhanced evanescent field.
It is believed to be a novel and inventive concept to provide a sensor platform in which each sensing area or region has attached thereto more than one type of capture element or molecule. This concept applies whether the platform is designed for evanescent resonant mode or a more conventional mode such as waveguiding. This, according to another aspect of the present invention there is provided a platform for use in a sample analysis, said platform having one or more sensing areas or regions, each for receiving a capture element or elements which when the platform is irradiated with coherent light can interact to provide an indication of an affinity reaction, wherein each capture element includes two or more types of capture molecule.